Book
title : Media Effects
Research
Author : Glenn. G Sparks
Publisher : Michael Rosenberg
Date
Published : 2010
Number
of pages : 261
Chapters
Part
1: A Scientific Approach to the Study of Media Effects
1.
Ways
of Knowing
This chapter
tells us ways that we try to know things about the world around us. There are
three ways of knowing. The first way is through direct experience or
empiricism. Another way of knowing is to rely on authorithy, and the last
particular way of knowing is science.
2.
Goals
of Science
This chapter
tells us about the goals of science. The goals of science are prediction,
explanation, understanding, and control.
3.
How
are The Goals of Science Achieved
This chapter
tells us how the goals of science achieved. Scientists achieve these goals by
advancing theories and testing theoretical, hypotheses that are falsifiable.
Science maintains a sceptical attitude and acknowledges that it can’t answer
every question. Finally, scientific method seeks to make general statements
about the way variables are related.
Part 2: Scientific Methods in Media
Effects Research
1.
Analyzing
Media Content
This chapter
describes the method of analyzing media content. There are 3 major research
methods used by media effect scholars. They are: content analysis, the sample
survey, and the experiment. Each method yields valuable information that may be
pertinent to documentary a media effect.
2.
The
Sample Survey
This chapter
tells us about a sample survey of media effect research. Surveys can reveal
valuable descriptive information as well as important relationships between
variables. There are some survey method: the sample, the questionnaire,
descriptive findings, statistical relationships, and interpretation of the
findings. There are 3 kinds of longitudinal survey design: trend study, cohort
study, and panel study.
3.
The
Search for Causal Relationships
This chapter
explains about documenting causal relationship between media and people. The
most common statistical tool used to determine relationship between two
variables is the technique of correlation. The criteria for causal
relationships are experiment, time order, and empirical relationship.
4.
The
Experimental Method
This chapter
explains us about the experimental method in mass communication. Experiment has
the advantage of being able to meet all three of the criteria for causal
relationship. They are independent variable, random assignment, manipulation of
the variable and control groups. The experimental design would be called a
pre-test and post-test design.
5.
Controversy
about Researchs Methods
This chapter
introduces us to the research methods used in media effect studies. If a
particular finding seems to show up again and again in studies of different
types, scientists would refer to this as replicating a research result with
convergent evidence. Replication refers to the fact that the same result can be
observed over and over again. Convergence refers to the fact that the use of
different methods still leads to the same general conclusion.
6.
Other
Methodological Approaches
This chapter
explains about the methodological approaches. There are two other useful tools
that are worth mentioning. They are epidemiological approach and meta-analysis.
Part 3: A Brief History of Media
Effects Research
1.
Setting
The Stage
This chapter
explains us about the events that seem to have set the stage for public and
concerns about the impact of mass media. The first is Congress Declares War
in Spain 1898. The second is Movie Explode as mainstream
entertainment in 1920. And the third is Propaganda in World War I 46 in
1917.
2.
1929-1932
The Payne Fund Studies
This chapter
tells us about the impact of newspaper on political affairs seemed obvious.
With The Payne Fund Studies, the research community generated the first
systematic attempt to investigate the impact of the media. The Payne Fund
Studies discovered the real impact of movies to children and adolescents. It
also tells about the content, emotional impact, affect behaviour and the effect
of the movie.
3.
The
Invasion From Mars
This chapter
tells us about the impact of mass media. In 1930, with the obvious impact of
the infamous “War of The Worlds” radio broadcast in America, introduce “The
Legacy of Fear” the idea that media were extremely powerful and could bring
about effects that were often harmful.
4.
Early
Theory of Media Effects: The Magic Bullet Model
This chapter
tells us about the theory of media effects, that’s magic bullet model. Magic
bullet model or the hypodermic needlemodel of mass communication is used to
look back on this early period of media effects history and see a general
theoretical view, eventhough it wasn’t stated formally.
5.
The
People’s Choice Study: The Limited-Effects Model
This chapter
tells us about the limited effects model. A study of voting behaviour, “The
People Choice Study” revealed a much more limited impact of mass media and
ushered in the limited-effects perspective. It is easy to use control group
when panel was interviewed for the forth time during the campaign.
6.
The
Evils of Comic Books
This chapter
explains us about the represent the population of comic book. The research in
comic book in the 1950s tended on Legacy of Fear it didn’t change because of
the research of Freder Wertham. He managed to convince many people that comic
books had powerful effects on young people and his book was a virtual diatribe
against the evils of comic book.
7.
The
Dawn of Television
This chapter
tells us the beginning of television. By the end of the decade of the 1950s,
90% of homes had TV. TV exploded on the scene and attracted research attention
in the 1960s and 1970s.
8.
Many
Types of Media Effects
This chapter
focus on media effects types. There are some types of media effects, they are
Micro Level or Macro Level effects, Content-Spesific or difuse-general effects,
attitudional versus behavioural versus cognitive changes, and alteration versus
stabilization.
Part 4: Time Spent with Mass Media:
Reasons and Consequences
1.
The
Uses and Gratifications Perspective
This chapter
tells us about the uses and gratifications perspective on media. Daily media is
quite substantial not only for children but also the old viewer. They have
different motivation as reasons on using media, such as learning, habit,
companionship, arousal, relaxation, escape, and passing time.
2.
The
Problem with Self-Reports
This chapter
explains heavily on self reports. There are 2 questions that researchers can
never answer all the time. The first question is the chances of getting
accurate answers about motivations and improve. The second question is concerning
whether people might deliberatery mispresent (social desirability response)
their viewing motives.
3.
Time
Spent With Media
This chapter
has focused on the impact of the time spent in and of itself. The major focus
of this research is on the displacement hypothesis and television viewing and
obesity.
Part 5: Effects of Media Violence
1.
The
Presence of Violent Content
This chapter
tells us about violent content in mass media. It isn’t difficult to understand
why our media contain a steady staple of violence. The best research on violent
content shows that nearly 60% of all television programming contains some
violence. One-third of all programs contain nearly 10 violent interactions.We
need to recognize that content doesn’t equal effect.
2.
The
Causal Link Between Viewing Violence and Behaving Aggresively
This chapter
tells us about the possible causal connection between media violence and
aggressive behaviour. In raising the question of the possible causal connection
between media violence and aggressive behaviour. It reviewed some of the
important surveys and experimental research relevant to the issue. There are
some research and studies viewing violence and behaving aggressively: the
research of Albert Bandura, the long-term studies of Leonard Eron and Rowell
Huesmann, the research of Brandon Centerwall, The Catharsis Hypothesis
3.
Desensization
to Violence
This chapter
discusses about desensization effect of media violence. Media violence may have
a desentizing effect, making us numb to violence in real life so that we don’t
react to it as we would if we had never seen it on the screen. The evidence of
this effect is anecdotal. Watching media violence can desentize one violence to
real life.
4.
What
About The Games? Are They Training Kids to Kill
This chapter discusses
about video games which has virtual exercise in killing. Although games give
enjoyment and entertainment also has exercise in virtual killing. It will be
explained by scientists’ research and opinion from killology side about violent
video game.
5.
Why
Do People Like Media Violence?
This chapter
discusses why violence is so attractive to some people. The assumption that
people generally enjoy media violence shouldn’t be taken for granted. The
reason why they tend to media violence are : it does seem that violent
entertainment may hold inherent appeal for some individuals, some people may
experience post-viewing gratification from viewing events, characters, and
themes that tend to appear in violent context, and violent media may contain
other themes that viewers tend to enjoy. So, the scientists discuss and analyze
about the appeal of media violence.
6.
Where
Does Research on Media Violence Go Now?
This chapter
tells us the areas which research may appear. There are two relatively new
areas of research appearing media violence research. The first is the role of
individual differences and the second is the use of Magnetic Resonance Imaging
to get a visual picture.
Part
6: Sexual Content in The Media
1.
Human
Sexuality Brings Our Passionate Opinion
This chapter
consider the general impact of sex and sexual content in the media. There are a
number of interest group when we consider sexual content and the impact of it
in the media: people with religious concern and a group advocates for the
protection of children on behalf on parents. They said that passionate opinion
as sexual content in the media.
2.
Sorting
Our Definitions and Terms
This chapter
tells about the definitions and term of sex media. Researchers have tended to
distinguish between pornography, violent sexuality, and eroticism as they have
studied media impact in this domain.
3.
The
Comission on Obscenity and Pornography
This chapter
describes about the national commission on obscenity and pornography. The
commission report stated that there were no known harms caused by pornography
for any population studied. Part of the charge of the commission was to study
existing laws pertaining to pornography and to arrive at better understanding
of the distribution of this material.
4.
Research
Following the Comission Report
This chapter
tells us about the research following the commission report. The research
includes a characterization of the available content and how that content
affects the viewer’s perception and behaviour.
5.
The
Meese Comission Report on Pornography
This chapter
tells about the first commission report on obscenity and pornography. The Meese
commission report reserved the conclusion of the first commission report. The
report drew heavy criticism from scientific community for a number of reasons.
Some researchers still describe the proposed relationship between exposure to
pornography and aggressive behaviour as “equivocal”.
6.
Sex
on Prime-Time TV
This chapter
tells about the effects of pornography or highly explicit depictions of
sexuality and the implication feature verbal and visual depictions of sex. The
scientists focus on sexual content and content analyses TV rather than studies
of impact. Although the actual amount of research evidence on the impact of TV
sex on behaviour is minimal, the knowledge that researchers have gained from
studying other area of media impact would certainly suggest that there is
reason to be concerned about the way sex is depicted in prime time.
7.
Control
Over Media Content
This chapter
tells about how to control over media content. Advocates seeking strategies to
control the flow of sexually explicit, materials turn instead to legal, social/
economic, and education solutions.
Part 7: Media Stir Emotions
1.
Fright
Reasons to Media are Prevalent
This chapter
tells about the effects of media violence on aggressive behavior. Depending on
the age of the child, but the most terrifying themes for both children and
adult are paranormal themes. Although the emotional effects of the type of
media are not nearly as sensational as the effect of media violence, these
effects may be far from common.
2.
Developmental
Theory: What Scares One Child May Not Scare Another
This chapter
explains about developmental psychology. For children, the research shows that
there is a wide range of material capable of inducing emotional upset at
various points in the child’s development, animated features hold the potential
to terrify. For older children and even for adults, fictional violence
represented in a realistic fashion or themes of the paranormal may be
emotionally disturbing.
3.
Experimenting
With the Incredible Hulk
This chapter
tells about children’s reactions to The Incredible Hulk. It has been viewed
that the kinds of media which frighten children at different ages are
confirmed. For younger kids under age seven, if it looks scary it probably will
be scary. For older kids, if the depiction could really happen and the
consequences are physically threatening, it probably will generate some fear.
4.
Why
is the Paranormal So Scary?
This chapter
tells why paranormal media depctions are so often experienced as frightening
and scarying. There are some depictions telling the controversy about
paranormal media and the promotion of belief in weird things is the fact that
the images and plots contained in these movies and TV shows are often scary
particularly for children. They can’t differ between reality and fantasy.
5.
Why
Do Some Media Fears Linger for So Long?: A Theory of Differential Brain
Processing
This chapter
explains about why an early fear response from childhood would linger so long
even well into adulthood. Joanne Cantor provided a good answer to the question
by drawing on the work of another scholar, Joseph Le Doux. Le Doux makes a
distinction between implicit memories and explicit memories that are stored in
the brain. In the case of fear, the memory might simply contain a negative
association with a particular object.
6.
Theory
About Emotional Coping: What’s a Parent to Do?
This chapters
tells about what parent should do to help their children though frightening
experiences that come during or after media exposure. The parents have to use
cognitive strategies and non cognitive strategies refrain from trying to
encourage the children to think about the source of their fear. For younger
children, the best strategy in coping with media-induced fears is to prevent
them in the first place.
7.
Is
It Fun to be Scared?
This chapter
tells about feeling scared. Researchers were intrigued by findings on enjoyment or frightening films may
reflect deeply ingrained socialized sex roles.
8.
Beyond
Fear: Other Emotional Reactions to Media
This chapter
explains about other emotional reactions than fear. The media present a rich, tapestry
of characters who experience a wide range of emotional reactions and through
empathy process, managing mood, Induce various emotion in viewers.
Part
8: Persuasive Effects of the Media
1.
What
is Persuassion?
This chapter
explains how media messages or persuade college student. There are some kinds
process a persuasive message.there are three dimensions of persuasive: attitude
change, behaviour change and persistent change. They are elaboration likehood
model, central route to persuasion, counter attitudional and peripheral-route
persuasion.
2.
How
Media Messages Persuade Without Even Trying
This chapter
explains us how media message persuade someone to change an attitude or
behaviour without even consciously trying to do so. Significant persuasion
involves attitude and behaviour changes that persist over time. Scholars have
learned that the entertainment messages can exert a powerful influence on
attitude and behaviour. Although
entertainment messages of media exposure isn’t particularly designed to change
attitudes and behaviours. Media messages also do exert an influence on what
people belief. It can be proven by some theories like the theory of media
cultivation.
3.
Intentional
Persuasion in the Media
This chapter
tells us intentional persuasion of media. Entertainment messages can persuade
unintentionally that media practioners could study the instances and learn to
master the principles of persuasion so that they can be applied in an
intentional way. They use entertainment for increasing public health with
entertainment-education method to embed health messages. Despite increasing
public health, it’s clear that the broadcast did exert a powerful influence on
the audience. Advertising works. It’s
persuasive.
4.
Some
Key Principles of Media Persuasion
This chapter
explains the key principles of media persuasion. There are some keys that we
can use in media persuasion, such as expertise, trustworthiness, simplicity,
repetition. It’s also important that we have to bring message features like
fear, guilt, and humor.recent research in the field of health communication
shows promise for documenting how media messages are capable of improving
people’s health habit.
5.
Subliminal
Persuasion: The Magic Key?
This chapter
tells us about subliminal persuasion or
the effectiveness of something. Wilson Bryan Key said that media contained
hidden or subliminal appeals that penetrated into the unconscious mind of the
consumer. So, the advertisers were so commited to the technique that
occasionally, they even put subliminal messages on the product itself. Most
scholars probably agree that the degree of precision required to apply the
subliminal priming effect to produce significant persuasion is so high that it
would be practically impossible or at least extremely difficult.
Part 9: The Effects of News and
Political Content
1.
Thinking
about The News
This chapter
explains about the keen of reading news. People who are high in their need for
cognition and political sophistication are particularly likely to ruminate and
thinks about the things that they have processed in the news. Agenda-theory
postulates that the media actually affect what people think about. What we
think helps to determine public opinion. The spiral of silence theory details
one way the media affect public opinion by giving sanction to the expression of
certain viewpoints.
2.
The
Role of Emotions
This chapter
discusses us the role of emotion in news. If you were highly involved with a
particular issue, more words in newspaper or word spoken by a newscaster might
be more than enough to set your emotion stirring. No where is the role of the
emotion in news more important in politics. Emotion may be one key variable
that helps to determine what we remember. In politics, emotional reactions to
debates and short commercial messages can often play a pivotal role in election
outcomes.
3.
Another
View of News: Do Certain News Report Cause More People to Die?
This chapter
discusses on news report and imitative suicide. The statistics really indicated
that news stories about suicide were causing an increase in suicides, the same
effect might be observed with other type of media messages. The
preponderance of evidence does seem to
suggest that the media have the capacity to induce imitative suicides in the
population.
Part 10: The Effects of Media
Stereotypes
1.
Stereotypical
Representations in the Media
This chapter
tells us various stereotypical representation in the media. Sexual and racial
stereotypes are two areas of research that have received most attention.
Although some studies on the effects of stereotypes have been undertaken, it
was noted that content studies are more prevalent than studies of impact. One
of area effects is in the study of female body images and their possible impact
on body dissasfaction and eating disorders.
2.
The
Imbalance in Media Research on Stereotypes
This chapter
discusses about an imbalance between content studies and effect studies.
The reason for the imbalance between
studies of content and studies of effects is probably main one: documenting
media effects is considerably more difficult than documenting the presence or
absecnce media content. The reasons for the existence of fewer studies on
effects and more on content were discussed, and the important distinction
between content and effect was emphasized.
3.
An
Intriguing and Under-Studied Media Despiction: Faces
This chapter
explains about an intriguing phenomenon involving the depiction of males and
females bodies and faces in the media. In comparison to males, females tend to
be shown in terms of their bodies instead of their heads or faces. The
implications of this phenomenon in terms of people’s perceptions of males and
females was highlighted.
Part 11: The Impact of New Media
Technologies
1.
The
Revolutions in New Media Technology
This chapter
tells us about new media technology. There are host effects of new media
technology that we might potentially contemplate. Computers and World Wide Web
have certainly changed the way we behave in mainly domain. One thing that new
technology doing to us is encouraging the traditional media effects scholars to
ask new questions and design new paradigm research. Mass communication is
labelled by media curricula at various universities.
2.
Computers
and the Internet : Connection or Alienation?
This chapter
studies about the impact of the internet. One of the central questions being
explored concerning the internet is whether this technology increases social
alienation, depression, and loneliness. The Carnegie Mellon Study said that was
the case. In the coming years, we can impact to see more research that will
help to provide insight and clarify the impact of the internet on individual
relationships. The most scolars have underestimated just how true media
equation is for our encounters with media in everyday life.
Part
12: Meet Marshall Mc Luhan: A Luhan Scientific Approach to Media Impact
1.
Is
There Any Value to Considering Marshall Mc Luhan?
This chapter
tells about the reasons for including a chapter on McLuhan’s ideas about the
media. There are the reasons. First, whatever approach one might take to the
study of media effects, McLuhan’s ideas about media influence have stirred
discussion and analysis from media scholars. Second, his ideas are so
provocative and far reaching in their implications that the students of media
effects ought to at least consider what he has to say. Finally, McLuhan’s
“Theory” provides a great contrast to scientific thinking.
2.
Meet
Marshal McLuhan
This chapter
describes about Marshal McLuhan biography. Marshal McLuhan was a Canadian
scholar, born in Edmonton in 1911. He died in 1980 after suffering a series of
strokes. In the early of 1960s, his reputation as a provocative new thinker
about mass media started to grow. The best way to begin to grasp the importance
of McLuhan’s ideas is to consider his view of human history.
3.
The
Eras of Communication History
This chapter
explains us about the Eras of communication history. McLuhan saw field of
historically. He described at least three major eras in communication history:
the tribal age, the print age, and the electronic age.
4.
The
Medium is The Message
This chapter
tells us about McLuhan’s habit of coining slogan and phrases “The Medium is The
Message”. McLuhan was saying that what really changed people the most was not
the message is any given medium of communication, but medium it self. If we are
unaware of the media’s impact on our culture, the slogan declaring that the
medium is the message is likely to sound a little strange.
5.
The
Effects of Electronic Media On Human Beings
This chapter
explains us the effects of electronic media. McLuhan said that electronic media
were changing us. With electronic media, all sort modern day phenomena, such as
politics, education, drugs, and war could be known and broadcasted. It very
helps college students and the society.
6.
McLuhan’s
Influence
This chapter
tells us about McLuhan’s perspective influence. His perspective is nearly
impossible to test scientifically. But, no one could really prove him wrong. Mc Luhan’s influence on the widely
read scholars and others writing about media impact is quite evident and acknowledged.
There is no escaping the fact that McLuhan’s basic ideas about media impact are
at least worthy of some attention.
Table
of Contents
Preface...................................................................................................... ...xv
Part 1: A Scientific Approach to the Study of Media Effects.............. ..1
1.
Ways
of Knowing.......................................................................
2
a.
Experience ...................................................................... 2
b.
Authorithy ....................................................................... 3
c.
Science............................................................................
4
2.
Goals
of Science
a.
Prediction .........................................................................4
b.
Explanation
5
c.
Understanding. 6
d.
Control 6
3.
How
are The Goals of Science Achieved 8
a.
Theory...............................................................................
8
b.
Falsifialibity .....................................................................10
c.
The
Nature of Science 11
d.
Science
is General............................................................ 12
e.
Science
Acknowledges the Existence of Objective Truth ..14
f.
Science
Assumes a Skeptical Attitude. 15
g.
Science
Can’t Answer Certain Kinds of Questions. 16
4.
Summary.......................................................................................
17
5.
Key
Terms and Concepts.............................................................
18
6.
Notes.............................................................................................
18
Part 2: Scientific Methods in Media
Effects Research........................... 20
1.
Analyzing
Media Content............................................................. 20
a.
What
is Content Analysis? 21
b.
An
Example: The Content of Popular Music 22
1)
The
Sample 22
2)
Units
of Analysis 23
3)
Categories 23
4)
Coding
Agreement 23
5)
Statistical
Analysis .......................................................24
6)
Interpretation
of Findings ............................................24
2.
The
Sample Survey ..............................................................................25
a.
An Example : Does Watching a Traumatic Event on TV Cause
1)
Post-Traumatic
Stress Disorder? ....................26
a)
The
Sample ...........................................27
b)
The
Questionnare................................. 27
c)
Descriptive
Findings .............................27
d)
Statistical
Relationships ........................27
e)
Interpretation
of Findings .....................28
f)
Types
of Surveys................................... 28
3.
The
Search for Causal Relationships .....................................................29
a.
Criteria
for Causal Relationship .....................................................29
1)
Correlation
Coefficients..................................................... 30
2)
Interpreting
Correlation Coefficients................................. 30
4.
The
Experimental Method.....................................................................
35
a.
Manipulation
of Key Variable......................................................... 35
b.
Random
Assignment to Experimental Conditions ...........................35
c.
Identical
Treatment Except for The Manipulation ..........................36
d.
Control
Groups ...............................................................................36
e.
Different
Experimental Designs..................................................... 37
f.
An Example : The Effects of Mood on Music Listening
a)
Choice ....................................................38
b)
Participants ............................................38
c)
Independent
Variable .............................39
d)
Dependent
Variable ...............................39
e)
Experimental
Results .............................39
f)
Interpretation
of Results........................ 39
5.
Controversy
about Researchs Methods................................................. 39
6.
Other
Methodological Approaches........................................................
40
7.
Summary................................................................................................
41
8.
Key
Terms and Concepts.......................................................................
42
9.
Notes......................................................................................................
42
Part 3: A Brief History of Media
Effects Research ..........................................44
1.
Setting
The Stage
..................................................................................
45
a.
1898-Congress
Declares War on Spain.......................................... 45
b.
1917-
Propaganda in World War I ..................................................46
c.
The
1920s-Movie Explode as Mainstream Entertainment.............. 46
2.
1929-1932
The Payne Fund Studies
a.
What
Was The Content of Movies?.................................................. 46
b.
The
Emotional Impact of Movies..................................................... 47
c.
Does
Watching Movies Affect Behavior?........................................ 48
d.
The
Aftermath of the Payne Fund Studies....................................... 49
3.
The
Invasion From Mars.......................................................................
50
a.
The
Research at Princeton.............................................................. 50
4.
Early
Theory of Media Effects: The Magic Bullet Model.................... 51
5.
The
People’s Choice Study: The Limited-Effects Model...................... 52
a.
Why
Use Control Groups?............................................................... 52
b.
Media
Impact in the 1940 Campaign ..............................................53
c.
Experiments
on World War II Movies .............................................53
d.
The
Limited-Effects Perspective ......................................................53
6.
The
Evils of Comic Books .....................................................................57
7.
The
Dawn of Television ........................................................................57
8.
Many
Types of Media Effects...............................................................
58
a.
Micro-Level
or Macro-Level Effects ...............................................58
b.
Content-Spesific
or Diffuse-General Effects....................................59
c.
Attitudinal
Versus Behavioral Versus Cognitive Changes.............. 59
d.
Alteration
Versus Stabilization ........................................................59
9.
Summary................................................................................................
59
10.
Key
Terms and Concepts.......................................................................
60
11.
Notes
......................................................................................................60
Part 4: Time Spent with Mass Media:
Reasons and Consequences............... 62
1.
The
Uses and Gratifications Perspective 63
a.
Why
Do Children Watch TV? 63
1)
Learning
63
2)
Habit
64
3)
Companionship 65
4)
Arrousal 66
5)
Relaxation
66
6)
Escape
66
7)
Passing
Time
67
b.
Uses
and Gratifications Among Older Viewers 67
2.
The
Problem with Self-Reports 68
3.
Time
Spent With Media 69
a.
The
Displacement Hypothesis 70
1)
Displacement
of Important Activities 71
b.
Television
Viewing and Obesity 73
4.
Summary
76
5.
Key
Terms and Concepts 76
6.
Notes
77
Part 5: Effects of Media Violence 80
1.
The
Presence of Violent Content
82
2.
The
Causal Link Between Viewing Violence and Behaving Aggresively
85
a.
The
Research of Albert Bandura 85
b.
The
Long-Term Studies of Leonard Eron and Rowell Huesmann 87
c.
The
Research of Brandon Centerwall 89
d.
The
Catharsis Hypothesis 89
e.
A
Priming Analysis of The Effect of Media Violence 91
3.
Desensization
to Violence 92
4.
What
About Video Games ? Are They Training Kids to Kill? 93
a.
An
Opinion on Video Games from an Expert on “Killology” 94
b.
What
Does The Research Say? 95
5.
Why
Do People Like Media Violence? 99
6.
Where
Does Research on Media Violence Go Now? 101
7.
Concluding
Comments 101
8.
Summary
102
9.
Key
Terms and Concepts 102
10.
Notes
102
Part
6: Sexual Content in The Media 105
1.
Human
Sexuality Brings Our Passionate Opinion 105
2.
Sorting
Our Definitions and Terms 107
3.
The
Comission on Obscenity and Pornography 108
a.
Major
Finding 108
b.
A Reexamination
of The Comission’s Findings 109
4.
Research
Following the Comission Report 111
a.
Content
Available 112
b.
Perceptual
Consequences of Viewing 112
c.
Behavioral
Consequences of Viewing 113
5.
The
Meese Comission Report on Pornography
115
a.
Major
Conclusion 115
6.
Sex
on Prime-Time TV 117
a.
The
Dynamics of Excitation Transfer 118
b.
Content
Analyses 119
c.
Sexual
Behavior and Viewing 120
7.
Control
Over Media Content 123
a.
Sex
and The Internet 123
b.
Legal
Control 123
c.
Social
or Economic Control 124
d.
Control
Through Education 124
8.
Summary125
9.
Key
Terms and Concepts 125
10.
Notes
125
Part 7: Media Stir Emotions 128
1.
Fright
Reasons to Media are Prevalent 129
2.
Developmental
Theory: What Scares One Child May Not Scare Another 130
3.
Experimenting
With the Incredible Hulk 131
4.
Why
is the Paranormal So Scary? 132
a.
Poltergeist 135
b.
The
Nightmare on Elm Street Series 135
c.
The
Exorcist 136
5.
Why
Do Some Media Fears Linger for So Long?: A Theory of Differential Brain
Processing 137
6.
Theory
About Emotional Coping: What’s a Parent to Do? 138
7.
Is
It Fun to be Scared? 139
a.
Frightening
Films and Roller-Coaster Rides 140
b.
The
Sexual Dynamic in Viewing Frightening Films 141
8.
Beyond
Fear: Other Emotional Reactions to Media 142
a.
Empathy:
I Feel What You Feel 142
b.
Using
Media to Manage Your Mood 142
c.
Does
Mediated Emotion Disrupt and Confuse Our Emotional Well-Being? 145
9.
Summary
146
10.
Key
Terms and Concepts 147
11.
Notes
148
Part
8: Persuasive Effects of the Media 150
1.
What
is Persuassion? 150
2.
How
Media Messages Persuade Without Even Trying 151
a.
The
Theory of Media Cultivation: Cultivating Attitudes is Attitude Change 153
b.
Do
Media Messages About The Paranormal Influence Paranormal Beliefs? 156
3.
Intentional
Persuasion in the Media 158
a.
Using
Entertainment to Improve Public Health 158
b.
The
Great American Value Test 159
c.
How
Does an Advertiser Determine Success? 160
d.
Some
Evidence for The Effectiveness of Advertising 160
4.
Some
Key Principles of Media Persuasion 161
a.
The
Power of The Source 163
b.
Messages
Features: Simplicity and Repetition 164
c.
More
Message Features : Fear, Guilt, and Humor 164
d.
The
Health Campaign 166
5.
Subliminal
Persuasion: The Magic Key? 168
a.
Early
History 169
b.
The
Presumed Mechanism 169
c.
Two
Important Questions 170
d.
A
Caveat : Research on Subliminal Primming 171
e.
The
Third-Person Effect 172
6.
Summary
173
7.
Key
Terms and Concepts 173
8.
Notes
173
Part 9: The Effects of News and
Political Content 178
1.
Thinking
about The News 178
a.
Need For Cognition 179
b.
Political
Sophistication 180
c.
Agenda-Setting
Theory: A Theory About Thinking 181
d.
The
Spiral of Silence 183
e.
How
Much of the News Do We Remember? 185
2.
The
Role of Emotions 188
3.
Another
View of News: Do Certain News Report Cause More People to Die? 192
a.
Imitative
Suicides and The News 193
4.
Summary
195
5.
Key
Terms and Concepts 195
6.
Notes
196
Part 10: The Effects of Media
Stereotypes 199
1.
Stereotypical
Representations in the Media 199
a.
Sex
Roles of Stereotype 201
b.
Effects
of Sex Role Stereotypes 202
c.
Media
Images of Thin Bodies and Effect on Body Image 204
d.
Racial
Stereotypes 207
e.
Overrepresentation
of African Americans as Lawbreakers 208
2.
The
Imbalance in Media Research on Stereotypes 210
3.
An
Intriguing and Under-Studied Media Despiction: Faces 212
4.
Summary
216
5.
Key
Terms and Concepts 216
6.
Notes
217
Part 11: The Impact of New Media
Technologies 219
1.
The
Revolutions in New Media Technology 219
2.
Computers
and the Internet : Connection or Alienation? 221
a.
The
Carnegie Mellon Study 222
b.
Applying
The Lessons of History 224
c.
Thinking
About New Technology 228
d.
Speculation
About New Technology Effects 231
e.
Will
Our Old Brains Catch Up to The New Technology? 232
f.
Potential
Medium Effects on Health 233
3.
Summary
234
4.
Key
Terms and Concepts 234
5.
Notes
235
Part
12: Meet Marshall Mc Luhan: A Luhan Scientific Approach to Media Impact 237
1.
Is
There Any Value to Considering Marshall Mc Luhan?237
2.
Meet
Marshal Mc Luhan 238
3.
The
Eras of Communication History 239
a.
The
Tribal Age 239
b.
Moving
from The Tribal Age to the Print Age 240
c.
Moving
on to the Current Electronic Age 241
4.
The
Medium is The Message 242
5.
The
Effects of Electronic Media On Human Beings 244
a.
Education
in the Electronic Age 244
b.
War
in the Electronic Age: Not So “Hot” 246
c.
Politics
in the Electronic Age: Was Bill Clinton
“Cooler” Than George Bush? 249
d.
Did
McLuhan’s Perspective Predict a Winner Between Obama and McCain? 249
e.
Drugs
in the Electronic Age 250
6.
Mc
Luhan’s Influence 251
7.
Some
Final Reflections 252
8.
Summary 252
9.
Key
Terms and Concepts 252
10.
Notes
253
11.
Important
Sources on Marshall McLuhan 253
Appendix Theories and Theoretical
Concepts Discussed in the Text (by Chapter) 255
1.
NAME
INDEX
257
2.
SUBJECT
INDEX
261
Questions and Answers
Part
1: A Scientific Approach to the Study of Media Effects 1
1.
Ways
of Knowing
2
Q: What are the
ways of knowing the world around us?
A: there are three
ways of knowing the world around us: experience, authorithy, and science.
2.
Goals
of Science 4
Q: What are the
four goals of science?
A: the four
goals of science are prediction, explanation, understanding and control.
3.
How
are The Goals of Science Achieved 8
Q: How are the
goals of science achieved?
A: to achieve
the goals of science, the scientist should know advancing theories and testing
theoretical, hypotheses that are falsifiable.
Part 2: Scientific Methods in Media
Effects Research 20
1.
Analyzing
Media Content
20
Q: What is
content analysis?
A: content
analysis is a method that allows the researcher to describe messages in
quantitave terms even though those messages are essentially verbal or
non-quantitative in nature.
2.
The
Sample Survey 25
Q: what are
three kinds of longitudinal survey design?
A: there are
three kinds of longitudinal survey design: trend study, cohort study, and panel
study.
3.
The
Search for Causal Relationships 29
Q: what is
technique of correlation?
A: technique of correlation is determine
relationship between two variables
4.
The
Experimental Method 35
Q: what are the key ingredients of experimental
methods?
A: the key
ingredients of experimental methods are independent variable, random assignment,
manipulation of the variable and control groups.
5.
Controversy
about Researchs Methods 39
Q: what does
convergence refer to?
A: Convergence
refers to the fact that the use of different methods still leads to the same
general conclusion.
6.
Other
Methodological Approaches 40
Q: what are two
other useful tools that are worth mentioning?
A: there are
two other useful tools that are worth mentioning: epidemiological approach and
meta-analysis.
Part 3: A Brief History of Media
Effects Research 44
1.
Setting
The Stage 45
Q: What are the
events that seem to have set the stage for public?
A: there are
three events that seem to have set the stage for public: Congress Declares
War in Spain 1898, Propaganda in World War I 46 in 1917, Movie Explode
as mainstream entertainment in 1920.
2.
1929-1932
The Payne Fund Studies 48
Q: whom does
the Payne Fund Studies discover the real impact of movies?
A: the Payne
Fund Studies discovered the real impact of movies to children and adolescents.
3.
The
Invasion From Mars 50
Q: when did
radio broadcast in America introduce “The Legacy of Fear” the idea?
A: In 1930,
with the obvious impact of the infamous “War of The Worlds” radio
broadcast in America, introduce “The Legacy of Fear” the idea
4.
Early
Theory of Media Effects: The Magic Bullet Model 51
Q: what is
magic bullet model?
A: Magic bullet
model or the hypodermic needle model of mass communication is used to look back
on this early period of media effects history and see a general theoretical
view, eventhough it wasn’t stated formally.
5.
The
People’s Choice Study: The Limited-Effects Model 52
Q: why should
we use control group?
A: It is easy
to use control group when panel was interviewed for the forth time during the
campaign.
6.
The
Evils of Comic Books 57
Q: when did The research in comic book in the
1950s tend on Legacy of Fear?
A: The research
in comic book in the 1950s tended on Legacy of Fear didn’t change because of the research of
Freder Wertham.
7.
The
Dawn of Television 57
Q: how many
percents did homes had TV by the end of the decade of the 1950s?
A: By the end
of the decade of the 1950s, 90% of homes had TV.
8.
Many
Types of Media Effects 58
Q: what are the
types of media effects?
A: There are
some types of media effects, they are Micro Level or Macro Level effects,
Content-Spesific or difuse-general effects, attitudional versus behavioural
versus cognitive changes, and alteration versus stabilization.
Part 4: Time Spent with Mass Media:
Reasons and Consequences 62
1.
The
Uses and Gratifications Perspective 63
Q: what are
children motivations watching TV?
A: children
motivations watching TV as reasons on
using media, such as learning, habit, companionship, arousal, relaxation,
escape, and passing time.
2.
The
Problem with Self-Reports
68
Q: what are the
questions that researchers can never answer all the time as the problem of
self-report?
A: There are 2
questions that researchers can never answer all the time. The first question is
the chances of getting accurate answers about motivations and improve. The
second question is concerning whether people might deliberatery mispresent
(social desirability response) their viewing motives.
3.
Time
Spent With Media
69
Q: what is the
major focus of the research?
A: The major
focus of this research is on the displacement hypothesis and television viewing
and obesity.
Part 5: Effects of Media Violence
80
1.
The
Presence of Violent Content
82
Q: how many
violent interactions do One-third of all programs contain?
A: One-third of
all programs contain nearly 10 violent interactions.
2.
The
Causal Link Between Viewing Violence and Behaving Aggresively 85
Q: what are the
research and studies viewing violence and behaving aggressively?
A: There are
some research and studies viewing violence and behaving aggressively: the
research of Albert Bandura, the long-term studies of Leonard Eron and Rowell
Huesmann, the research of Brandon Centerwall, The Catharsis Hypothesis
3.
Desensization
to Violence 92
Q: what is the
effect of desentizing?
A: The evidence
of desentizing effect is anecdotal.
4.
What
About Video Games ? Are They Training Kids to Kill? 93
Q: Are games
training kids to kill?
A: Although
games give enjoyment and entertainment also has exercise in virtual killing.
5.
Why
Do People Like Media Violence?
99
Q: why do
people like media violence?
A: because it
does seem that violent entertainment may hold inherent appeal for some
individuals, some people may experience post-viewing gratification from viewing
events, characters, and themes that tend to appear in violent context, and
violent media may contain other themes that viewers tend to enjoy.
6.
Where
Does Research on Media Violence Go Now? 101
Q: where does
research on media go now?
A: There are
two relatively new areas of research appearing media violence research. The
first is the role of individual differences and the second is the use of
Magnetic Resonance Imaging to get a visual picture
Part
6: Sexual Content in The Media 105
1.
Human
Sexuality Brings Our Passionate Opinion 105
Q: who are the interests group that we enter in an arena when we
consider sexual content and the impact of it in the media?
A: There are a number of interest group when we consider sexual
content and the impact of it in the media: people with religious concern and a
group advocates for the protection of children on behalf on parents.
2.
Sorting
Our Definitions and Terms 107
Q: what are the terms that the researchers tending?
A: Researchers have tended to distinguish between pornography,
violent sexuality, and eroticism as they have studied media impact
3.
The
Comission on Obscenity and Pornography 108
Q: what does part of the charge of the commission study and arrive?
A: Part of the charge of the commission was to study existing laws
pertaining to pornography and to arrive at better understanding of the
distribution of this material.
4.
Research
Following the Comission Report
111
Q: what does the research includes?
A: The research includes a characterization of the available
content and how that content affects the viewer’s perception and behaviour.
5.
The
Meese Comission Report on Pornography 115
Q: what does some researchers still describe?
A: Some
researchers still describe the proposed relationship between exposure to
pornography and aggressive behaviour as “equivocal”.
6.
Sex
on Prime-Time TV 117
Q: what do the scientists focus on their research?
A: The scientists focus on sexual content and content analyses TV
rather than studies of impact in their research.
7.
Control
Over Media Content
123
Q: how to control over media content?
A: . to control
the flow of sexually explicit, materials turn instead to legal, social/
economic, and education solutions.
Part 7: Media Stir Emotions
128
1.
Fright
Reasons to Media are Prevalent
129
Q: what is the
most terrifying theme for children and adult?
A: the most terrifying themes for both children
and adult are paranormal themes.
2.
Developmental
Theory: What Scares One Child May Not Scare Another
130
Q: what makes
older children or adults scared?
A:
For older children and even for adults, fictional violence represented in a
realistic fashion or themes of the
paranormal may be emotionally disturbing.
3.
Experimenting
With the Incredible Hulk 131
Q: how does the
Incredible Hulk look for younger kids under age seven?
A: For younger
kids under age seven, if it looks scary it probably will be scary.
4.
Why
is the Paranormal So Scary?
132
Q: why is the
paranormal so scary?
A: because the fact that the images and plots
contained in these movies and TV shows are often scary particularly for
children. They can’t differ between reality and fantasy.
5.
Why
Do Some Media Fears Linger for So Long?: A Theory of Differential Brain
Processing 137
Q: what does Le
Doux make that are stored in the brain?
A: Le Doux
makes a distinction between implicit memories and explicit memories that are
stored in the brain.
6.
Theory
About Emotional Coping: What’s a Parent to Do? 138
Q: what does
the parent have to do for encouraging
the children to think about the source of their children’s fear?
A: The parents
have to use cognitive strategies and non cognitive strategies refrain from
trying to encourage the children to think about the source of their fear.
7.
Is
It Fun to be Scared?
139
Q: how were
researchers intrigued their scary?
A: Researchers
were intrigued by findings on enjoyment
or frightening films may reflect deeply ingrained socialized sex roles.
8.
Beyond
Fear: Other Emotional Reactions to Media 142
Q: what is the
emotion which viewers feel besides fear?
A: the viewers’
feels are empathy and mood which they are feeling when they watch the movie
Part
8: Persuasive Effects of the Media 150
1.
What
is Persuassion?
150
Q: What is
Persuassion?
A: persuasion is changing attitude and behaviour
that persist over time.
2.
How
Media Messages Persuade Without Even Trying 151
Q: do media
messages about the paranormal influence paranormal beliefs?
A: yes, they
do. Media messages do exert an influence on what people believe. Depending on
the message, people may be persuaded to change their beliefs.
3.
Intentional
Persuasion in the Media 158
Q: how can entertainment messages can persuade
the viewers?
A: Entertainment
messages can persuade unintentionally that media practioners could study the
instances and learn to master the principles of persuasion so that they can be
applied in an intentional way.
4.
Some
Key Principles of Media Persuasion 161
Q: what are the
key principles of media persuasion?
A: There are
some keys that we can use in media persuasion, such as expertise,
trustworthiness, simplicity, repetition.
5.
Subliminal
Persuasion: The Magic Key?
168
Q: what is
subliminal persuasion?
A: one of the
questions that arose in the class at the every outset was about the
effectiveness of something.
Part 9: The Effects of News and
Political Content 178
1.
Thinking
about The News
178
Q: what are the theories influencing thinking of
news?
A: the theories
influencing thinking of news are agenda-setting theory and spiral of silence
theory.
2.
The
Role of Emotions 188
Q: how is
emotion in politic?
A: In politics,
emotional reactions to debates and short commercial messages can often play a
pivotal role in election outcomes.
3.
Another
View of News: Do Certain News Report Cause More People to Die?
192
Q: what is the
effect of news stories about suicide?
A: The
statistics really indicated that news stories about suicide were causing an increase
in suicides, the same effect might be observed with other type of media
messages.
Part 10: The Effects of Media
Stereotypes
199
1.
Stereotypical
Representations in the Media 199
Q: what are the areas of research that have
received most attention?
A: Sexual and
racial stereotypes are two areas of research that have received most attention.
2.
The
Imbalance in Media Research on Stereotypes 210
Q: what is
The reason for the imbalance between
studies of content and studies of effects?
A: The reason for the imbalance between studies of
content and studies of effects is probably main one: documenting media effects
is considerably more difficult than documenting the presence or absecnce media
content.
3.
An
Intriguing and Under-Studied Media Despiction: Faces 212
Q: what is
shown from females to compare with males?
A: In
comparison to males, females tend to be shown in terms of their bodies instead
of their heads or faces.
Part 11: The Impact of New Media
Technologies 219
1.
The
Revolutions in New Media Technology 219
Q: what are
host effects of new media technology?
A: There are
host effects of new media technology that we might potentially contemplate:
Computers and World Wide Web have certainly changed the way we behave in mainly
domain.
2.
Computers
and the Internet : Connection or Alienation? 221
Q: what will
internet cause?
A: the internet
can cause and increase social alienation, depression, and loneliness.
Part
12: Meet Marshall Mc Luhan: A Luhan Scientific Approach to Media Impact 237
1.
Is
There Any Value to Considering Marshall Mc Luhan? 237
Q: what is the
reason including a chapter on McLuhan’s idea about the media?
A: There are
the reasons. First, whatever approach one might take to the study of media effects,
McLuhan’s ideas about media influence have stirred discussion and analysis from
media scholars. Second, his ideas are so provocative and far reaching in their
implications that the students of media effects ought to at least consider what
he has to say. Finally, McLuhan’s “Theory” provides a great contrast to
scientific thinking.
2.
Meet
Marshal Mc Luhan 238
Q: when did
Marshal McLuhan reputation as a provocative new thinker about mass media start
to grow?
A: In the early
of 1960s, Marshal McLuhan reputation as a provocative new thinker about mass
media started to grow.
3.
The
Eras of Communication History 239
Q: what are
three major eras in communication history that Marshal McLuhan described?
A: Marshal McLuhan described at least three major
eras in communication history: the tribal age, the print age, and the
electronic age.
4.
The
Medium is The Message 242
Q: what does
The Medium is The Message mean?
A: McLuhan was
saying that what really changed people the most was not the message is any
given medium of communication, but medium it self.
5.
The
Effects of Electronic Media On Human Beings 244
Q: what is the
effect of electronic media on human being?
A: Marshal Mc Luhan said that electronic media changed person.
With electronic media, all sort modern day phenomena, such as politics,
education, drugs, and war could be known and broadcasted.
6.
Mc
Luhan’s Influence 251
Q: How is Mc
Luhan’s influence?
A: Mc Luhan’s
influence on the widely read scholars and others writing about media impact is
quite evident and acknowledged
